Unit 1: Microbiology

• Microbial cell structure and function

• Microbial growth and nutrition

• Microbial genetics and genetic regulation

• Microbial metabolism and energy production

• Microbial diversity and classification

• Microbial pathogenesis and host-pathogen interactions

• Medical microbiology and infectious diseases

• Industrial and environmental microbiology

• Microbial biotechnology and applications

Unit 2: Physiology

• Human and animal physiological systems

• Neural and endocrine control mechanisms

• Cardiovascular and respiratory physiology

• Digestive and excretory systems

• Reproductive physiology

• Homeostasis and regulation

Unit 3: Molecular Biology

• Structure and function of nucleic acids (DNA, RNA)

• DNA replication, repair, and recombination

• Transcription and RNA processing

• Translation and genetic code

• Gene expression regulation

• Recombinant DNA technology and genetic engineering

• Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing

• Molecular markers and DNA fingerprinting

• Genomics, proteomics, and functional genomics

Unit 4: Genetics

• Mendelian genetics and inheritance patterns

• Chromosomal basis of inheritance

• Genetic variation and evolution

• Molecular basis of genetics and gene expression

• Genetic mapping and linkage analysis

• Population genetics and Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

• Mutations and genetic disorders

• Genetic counseling and medical genetics

Unit 5: Human Biology

• Human anatomy and physiology of major organ systems

• Human health and diseases

• Human reproduction and developmental biology

• Human growth and nutrition

• Human genetics and genetic disorders

• Human immunology and immune responses

• Aging and age-related diseases

Unit 6: Biotechnology

• Basics of biotechnology and its applications

• Recombinant DNA technology and gene cloning

• Genetic engineering and transgenic organisms

• Bioprocess engineering and fermentation technology

• Enzyme technology and industrial applications

• Agricultural biotechnology and genetically modified crops

• Bioremediation and environmental biotechnology

Unit 7: Biochemistry

• Structure and function of biomolecules (proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, carbohydrates)

• Enzyme kinetics and mechanisms

• Metabolism and metabolic pathways

• Biochemical signaling and cell communication

• Biochemical techniques (electrophoresis, chromatography, spectroscopy)

• Biochemical genetics and inborn errors of metabolism

Unit 8: Bioinformatics

• Introduction to bioinformatics and computational biology

• Sequence analysis and alignment algorithms

• Structural bioinformatics and protein structure prediction

• Genomic and proteomic databases

• Phylogenetic analysis and molecular evolution

• Functional annotation of genes and proteins

• Systems biology and network analysis

Unit 9: Biophysics

• Physical principles in biological systems

• Biophysical techniques (spectroscopy, microscopy, X-ray crystallography)

• Membrane biophysics and cell physiology

• Protein structure and function

• Molecular interactions and binding kinetics

• Biophysical modeling and simulations

Unit 10: Immunology

• Immune system components and functions

• Innate and adaptive immunity

• Antigen-antibody interactions

• Immunological techniques (ELISA, Western blot, flow cytometry)

• Autoimmunity and immunodeficiency

• Immunotherapy and vaccine development

• Transplantation immunology

Unit 11: Pharmacology

• Principles of pharmacology and drug action

• Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics

• Drug metabolism and elimination

• Drug receptors and signaling pathways

• Mechanisms of drug interactions and adverse effects

• Rational drug design and drug discovery

• Clinical trials and drug development

Unit 12: Nursing

• Fundamentals of nursing practice

• Health assessment and nursing diagnosis

• Medical-surgical nursing

• Pediatric nursing

• Obstetric and gynecological nursing

• Psychiatric nursing

• Community health nursing

Unit 13: Zoology

• Animal diversity and classification

• Animal physiology and adaptations

• Animal behavior and ethology

• Animal ecology and conservation

• Comparative anatomy and morphology

• Animal evolution and evolutionary biology

• Endocrinology and hormones in animals

Unit 14: Botany

• Plant anatomy and morphology

• Plant physiology and growth

• Plant taxonomy and systematics

• Plant ecology and adaptation

• Plant genetics and breeding

• Plant biotechnology and genetic engineering

• Plant pathology and diseases

Unit 15: Environmental Sciences

• Environmental pollution and its types

• Ecosystem ecology and energy flow

• Biodiversity conservation and habitat management

• Environmental impact assessment

• Climate change and global environmental issues

• Waste management and pollution control

• Environmental laws and policies

Unit 16: Veterinary Science

• Animal anatomy and physiology

• Veterinary microbiology and infectious diseases

• Veterinary pharmacology and therapeutics

• Veterinary pathology and diagnostic techniques

• Veterinary public health and epidemiology

• Animal breeding and genetics

• Livestock management and animal husbandry

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